Short Story - 1608 Words

But one favour... My boss wont keep me busy long. Im just loading drill bits. - May I take you out for dinner one night? - Youre not listening. Driving together doesnt mean... Remember, Im a married woman. Dont get mad. I was just wondering. You never come to the hotel... we never see you with Charles... Are you just delivering the painting? - Pieter, I... - Youre not coming back. Its okay. It happens. - Maybe hes not shooting today. - If your mothers there... - Dont expect too much from your dad. - Hes bad at this. Hi, guys. Dont ask me how its going. Its going terribly. Welcome to the club. I wont even try taxiing today. - Wheres Kortjas? He owes me a lift. - Hes feeding the donkeys with Johanna. -†¦show more content†¦Does someone else have a key? Tony... Ive lost too much. Shes already so... I cant lose her too. - If Butterflys jewellery is in that case... - Maybe it isnt. - Maybe were just imagining it. Dammit, Tony. - Dont get weird on me. My contact only found his 6 months for petty crime, and he was a model prisoner. Hell only do a few months for attempted burglary, or hell go free. We need more than that. He cant just get away. He cant! Dammit, whats Breggies problem? She thinks with her lady parts - thats her problem. Some enchanted evening... you may see a stranger. You may see a stranger... across an empty room. The wind will start blowing, and bring us rain. I feel it in my glands. Morning, Aunt Dot. Breggie Petersen, in the flesh! Where have you been? I need a photo to recognise you. With the guest house and Johanna and all, I leave the shopping to Kortjas. Thats good. Lazy ass also needs to do something. He can thank his lucky stars that he found you. My best packer ever. - Did you win the lotto? - No, Breggie. Im serious. A packer who can read is as rare as Troffels llamas. I wrote a book. Wow, thats amazing. - Dont these miracles end? - I really did. Its this thick. - Now the wind must just bring us rain. - But I cant send it. And I cant ask Kortjas. - What do you mean send it? - Maybe Im just stupid. Think about it - all that work. I must find a publisher to hear what they say, even if its no.Show MoreRelatedshort story1018 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Short Stories:  Ã‚  Characteristics †¢Short  - Can usually be read in one sitting. †¢Concise:  Ã‚  Information offered in the story is relevant to the tale being told.  Ã‚  This is unlike a novel, where the story can diverge from the main plot †¢Usually tries to leave behind a  single impression  or effect.  Ã‚  Usually, though not always built around one character, place, idea, or act. †¢Because they are concise, writers depend on the reader bringing  personal experiences  and  prior knowledge  to the story. Four MajorRead MoreThe Short Stories Ideas For Writing A Short Story Essay1097 Words   |  5 Pageswriting a short story. Many a time, writers run out of these short story ideas upon exhausting their sources of short story ideas. If you are one of these writers, who have run out of short story ideas, and the deadline you have for coming up with a short story is running out, the short story writing prompts below will surely help you. Additionally, if you are being tormented by the blank Microsoft Word document staring at you because you are not able to come up with the best short story idea, youRead MoreShort Story1804 Words   |  8 PagesShort story: Definition and History. A  short story  like any other term does not have only one definition, it has many definitions, but all of them are similar in a general idea. According to The World Book Encyclopedia (1994, Vol. 12, L-354), â€Å"the short story is a short work of fiction that usually centers around a single incident. Because of its shorter length, the characters and situations are fewer and less complicated than those of a novel.† In the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s DictionaryRead MoreShort Stories648 Words   |  3 Pageswhat the title to the short story is. The short story theme I am going conduct on is â€Å"The Secret Life of Walter Mitty’ by James Thurber (1973). In this short story the literary elements being used is plot and symbols and the theme being full of distractions and disruption. The narrator is giving a third person point of view in sharing the thoughts of the characters. Walter Mitty the daydreamer is very humorous in the different plots of his dr ifting off. In the start of the story the plot, symbols,Read MoreShort Stories1125 Words   |  5 PagesThe themes of short stories are often relevant to real life? To what extent do you agree with this view? In the short stories â€Å"Miss Brill† and â€Å"Frau Brechenmacher attends a wedding† written by Katherine Mansfield, the themes which are relevant to real life in Miss Brill are isolation and appearance versus reality. Likewise Frau Brechenmacher suffers through isolation throughout the story and also male dominance is one of the major themes that are highlighted in the story. These themes areRead MoreShort Story and People1473 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Title: Story Of An Hour Author: Kate Chopin I. On The Elements / Literary Concepts The short story Story Of An Hour is all about the series of emotions that the protagonist, Mrs. Mallard showed to the readers. With the kind of plot of this short story, it actually refers to the moments that Mrs. Mallard knew that all this time, her husband was alive. For the symbol, I like the title of this short story because it actually symbolizes the time where Mrs. Mallard died with joy. And with thatRead MoreShort Story Essay1294 Words   |  6 PagesA short story concentrates on creating a single dynamic effect and is limited in character and situation. It is a language of maximum yet economical effect. Every word must do a job, sometimes several jobs. Short stories are filled with numerous language and sound devices. These language and sound devices create a stronger image of the scenario or the characters within the text, which contribute to the overall pre-designed effect.As it is shown in the metaphor lipstick bleeding gently in CinnamonRead MoreRacism in the Short Stor ies1837 Words   |  7 PagesOften we read stories that tell stories of mixing the grouping may not always be what is legal or what people consider moral at the time. The things that you can learn from someone who is not like you is amazing if people took the time to consider this before judging someone the world as we know it would be a completely different place. The notion to overlook someone because they are not the same race, gender, creed, religion seems to be the way of the world for a long time. Racism is so prevalentRead MoreThe Idol Short Story1728 Words   |  7 PagesThe short stories â€Å"The Idol† by Adolfo Bioy Casares and â€Å"Axolotl† by Julio Cortà ¡zar address the notion of obsession, and the resulting harm that can come from it. Like all addictions, obsession makes one feel overwhelmed, as a single thought comes to continuously intruding our mind, causing the individual to not be able to ignore these thoughts. In â€Å"Axolotl†, the narr ator is drawn upon the axolotls at the Jardin des Plantes aquarium and his fascination towards the axolotls becomes an obsession. InRead MoreGothic Short Story1447 Words   |  6 Pages The End. In the short story, â€Å"Emma Barrett,† the reader follows a search party group searching for a missing girl named Emma deep in a forest in Oregon. The story follows through first person narration by a group member named Holden. This story would be considered a gothic short story because of its use of setting, theme, symbolism, and literary devices used to portray the horror of a missing six-year-old girl. Plot is the literal chronological development of the story, the sequence of events

Personal Narrative - Rough Draft - 1067 Words

Carleigh Grupe Professor Schnell English 1301 9 September 2015 Personal Narrative – Rough Draft The lake glistened before me as my mom and I pulled into Blue Lake Fine Arts Camp just outside Twin Lakes Michigan. I had been accepted into the International Youth Symphony Orchestra program where after spending a week at the camp the entire orchestra would be heading off on a six week European Tour to share our musical talents and American culture with another part of the world. I knew traveling to a different continent would give me further insight as to who I was a person, but did not imagine the people I would meet would impact me as much as they did. His name was Alex Peabody, a 16 year old junior from Ann Arbor, Michigan. Although we weren’t best friends, we were still close with one another throughout the tour. He had messy brown hair that framed his round face and always wore a big flashy smile. One of my favorite moments with him was while we were waiting to board the bus to go the the airport. While we sat waiting, I was practicing my flute in preparation for our first concert in France. Many of the other students were practicing, talking, giggling, or sharing newly found favorite songs with their friends. The noise was deafening and created a carnival of sound that grew louder with each passing minute. Out of the corner of my eye I saw Alex, a cello player, watching me practice, his eyes bright with fascination. â€Å"Alex, do you know how to play flute?† I called toShow MoreRelatedPersonal Narrative Rough Draft : Choosing A Career Is Not An Easy Task864 Words   |  4 PagesPersonal Narrative Rough Draft Choosing a career is not an easy task. As a child, I never knew what I eventually wanted to grow up to be, but in the back of my mind I would always say a teacher because I come from a long history of teachers in my family. One of my grandpas was a high school math teacher along with coaching the football team. My aunt is an elementary school substitute teacher specializing in special needs students, while my uncle is a high school history teacher. While, my fatherRead MorePersonal Narrative : A Semester Of Learning959 Words   |  4 Pagesof writing such as a research paper, a narrative, and a persuasive essay. Even so, no year has enhanced my writing skills and prepared me for what is to come as much as my seventh period English class my junior year. Through my English Composition 1113, I have improved my understanding of the importance of mechanics, word choice, and the overall writing process when writing my narrative essay, process essay, and research essay. When working on my narrative essay â€Å"Last Breath,† my teacher, Mrs. BeddingfieldRead MorePersonal Reflection1050 Words   |  5 PagesStudent Outlines, and it was evident while revising my first project, the personal narrative. The first objective was â€Å"Students will identify and apply multiple approaches to the study of language, usage, grammar, diction, and style of standard written English.† In the course, I definitely had to approach the study of language in multiple different ways. I learned about many different writing styles, from the personal narrative of Project One, to the research intensive academic paper of Project TwoRead MoreMy Experience : My Personal Experience772 Words   |  4 Pagesworked a little harder to achieve an even higher grade, which resulted in my best works towards the end of the year. My finest piece of work is the personal narrative essay I wrote, titled Goals for the Future. This work stands out from most of my classmates’ because I describe the goals and aspirations I have for the future, while showing a personal side of my life through my faith. Comparing this essay to my first one, The Importance of Character in the Classroom, displays great examples of myRead MoreReflection Paper1022 Words   |  5 Pages This class has taught me how to use certain skills to write a well written essay. By using the learning objectives exemplified in the class I was able to write multiple well written papers. The first writing assignment was a literacy narrative. This narrative did not ask for much, but to write a brief anecdote about my first week of college. I was so nervous to write this essay because it was my first college paper to write and the prompt did not ask for much. Usually, in high school, teachersRead MoreMy Reading And Writing Skills1484 Words   |  6 Pagesabout this concern in my Literacy Narrative assignment. I realized for the first time my easy high school years had hurt me academically, and that as a college freshman, my reading and writing skills were at an eighth grade level. I tried, but was unable to keep up with the other students. I was a homeschooled, seventeen year old, lost in this world of learning, surrounded mainly by students who came from private schools all over the country. (Literacy Narrative 7?) I had no writing skills beyondRead MoreReflection1179 Words   |  5 Pagestime, I have complete power over the sentences and structures that I am weav ing together to form a cohesive whole. Throughout High School, I was trained to write a structured essay in an ample amount of time by writing, editing, and finalizing my draft. Most of our work involved writing individual essays and research papers in which I developed a strong foundation in. However, I realized that I lacked experience in group work as well as oral communication in delivering my ideas to the audience. AtRead MoreMy Strengths And Weaknesses Of The Foreign Environment That Is College971 Words   |  4 Pagesenvironment that is college, I didn t know what to expect when it came to beginning WRD 103. The various assignments that were asked to be produced exceptionally strengthened my overall writing abilities. The idea of writing creatively within narratives and analyzing different stories or commercials expanded the way can express my multi-modal writing. My skills within all of these areas are still under progress, but with the constant practice, I am confident t hat these skills will continue to growRead MoreI Was Never A School For Me890 Words   |  4 Pagescourse with a narrative about education it allowed me to dip my toes back into the â€Å"cold waters† of writing. To be honest when writing the wp1 I could not remember the last time I had written a personal narrative because I was trained to write rhetorical analysis and research papers. Looking back on the wp1 project I notice that my essay began like I would start an essay in response to a piece, but as I let this structured rubric go I was able to easily write. I found writing a narrative was just aRead MoreFour Essays That Prove I Suck: The Arguments of a Pacifist1110 Words   |  5 Pagesunderdeveloped, â€Å"Starting the week before a major exam, students go through a cramming period where we try to remember everything the professor said since the class started†. That sentence could use better organization, different vocabulary, and less personal input. Looking back, I really needed to be knocked down a few pegs. My writing process at the beginning of the semester involved sitting on the couch with a bag of Doritos and praying to God that I could take up four whole pages with random ideas

Martyrs Day Free Essays

MARTYRS DAY The Nation pays homage to the martyrs who suffered and died for the freedom, welfare, and progress of the country, on January 30 every year. It was on January 30, 1948 that Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated a little before the sunset when he was going to attend his evening prayers. Gandhiji was the greatest among the lakhs and lakhs of martyrs and freedom fighters who sacrificed everything for the country’s Independence, welfare andprogress. We will write a custom essay sample on Martyrs Day or any similar topic only for you Order Now Since Gandhiji’s martyrdom on January 30, 1948 this day was declared as the Martyrs’ Day. Since then every year the Nation pays homage to the Mahatma and other martyrs on this day. On Martyr’s Day, the President, the Vice President, the Prime Minister, the Defence Minister, and the three service Chiefs gather at the Samadhi of Mahatma Gandhi at Rajghat and lay wreaths on the Samadhi decorated with multi-colour flowers. The armed forces personnel blow the bugles sounding the Last Post. The inter-services contingent reverse arms as a mark of respect to the martyrs. A two-minutes silence in memory of the Father of the Nation and other martyrs is observed throughout the country at 11 a. m. At Rajghat, in front of the Samadhi of Gandhiji, all-religion prayers are held and bhajans dear to him sung. January 30, 1948 is the saddest and most poignant day in our history. For on this day, 78-year old Mahatma Gandhi was killed in Birla House (now known as Gandhi Smriti) when he was going to join his evening prayers. This was the biggest tragedy that the Nation faced after we achieved our hard-won Independence under the leadership of Gandhiji. I was a few yards away when this tragedy occurred. Like other days, I was slowly walking behind the Mahatma towards the prayer ground. I saw a well-built, tall young man, clad in khaki, rushing from the peaceful crowd of men, women and children, who came to attend the prayers, towards Gandhiji. Gandhiji was then ascending the steps to the prayer ground. The restless young man tried to touch Gandhiji’s feet. Gandhiji’s grand daughters, Manu and Ava, told him that Gandhiji did not like people touching his feet. They both tried to stop the man and told him not to delay the Mahatma who was already late for the prayers. But the man pushed them aside and the prayer books and other things which they were carrying fell on the ground. The young man, who had a pistol, suddenly fired three shots from close range at Gandhiji. The Mahatma fell on the ground, his white khadi dress soaked in blood. A man of prayer, Gandhiji remembered God and said, â€Å"Hey Ram : Hey Ram. † It was 5. 17 p. m. Men, women and children, who came to join the prayers, were shocked and wept aloud to see the Father of the Nation being killed in front of their eyes. A bleeding Gandhiji was rushed to the room where he was staying. The news of his assassination spread like a fire. Despite one of the coldest nights in India’s capital, thousands of people crowded in front of Birla House and wanted to have Gandhiji’s darshan. Inside the room there were tragic scenes. Pandit Nehru, our first Prime Minister, wept like a child. Sardar Patel was seen consoling him. Doctors rushed into the room. They examined Gandhiji. They remained dumb. Slowly, they signified that the Mahatma was dead. This was my worst and saddest reporting of the Mahatma after about four years’ tour as the United Press of India correspondent with him in various parts of the country. I wept but I had to do my duty. After flashing the news to my office, I rushed to the room where Gandhiji’s body was lying. Recitations from the Gita and other scriptures were going on. I remained whole night in that room. Lights in the room were switched off. An oil lamp was lit. There was darkness everywhere. Sitting in the room, I wrote an article titled â€Å"That Darkest Night† which was well published. Outside the room, there was a huge waiting and weeping crowd. The people were shouting in choked voice â€Å"Allow us to have last darshan of our beloved Bapuji†. The entire area rent with repeated cries of â€Å"Mahatma Gandhi ki Jai†. In order to allow the people to have darshan of the Mahatma, his body was placed on the high table in the adjacent room. A powerful lamp was lit so that the people could have an easy darshan. As the doors of the room were opened, there was a huge rush. Everybody wanted to touch Gandhiji’s feet. An old woman fell down in the rush and fainted. There was so much confusion that the doors of the room had to be closed. Then Gandhiji’s body was taken to the roof of the house and placed under powerful light to enable the vast multitude of people have a last glimpse of him. In bitter cold, Gandhiji was given a bath at 1 a. m. The blood-soaked clothes were then removed from his body. I then saw three bullet wounds on his body. Two bullets had pierced through his body. The third bullet remained in his body. The wounds were still bleeding. The scene was tragic. After the bath, Gandhiji was dressed in khaddar loin cloth presented to him on his last birthday. He was garlanded with a hank of hand-spun thread. He was decorated with flowers and garlands. Gandhiji’s favourite Ram Dhun and bhajans were recited. Gandhiji’s watch then struck 3. 30 a. m. Everyday, he was used to hold his morning prayers at that time. All-religion prayers were held that day as well. His grand daughters, Ava and Manu, sang a Hindi bhajan befitting the occasion. This bhajan is as follows: â€Å"Karle Sringar, Chatur Albele, (Tujhe) Sajan ke Ghar Jana Hoga, Miitti Orhawan, Mitti Bichawan, Mitti me hi Mil Jana Hoga. Karle Sringar†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Nahale Dhole Shish Gothale Phir Wahan-se Nahi Ana Hoga Karle Sringar †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬  As the prayers were going on, the first rays of the sun entered the room. That dreadful night, which the whole nation passed in anguish and tears, came to an end. Preparations for Gandhiji’s last journey to Rajghat were being made. A mass of humanity had crowded in Delhi on that occasion. The cremation at Rajghat was attended by world dignitaries. Gandhiji, alongwith lakhs of men and women who sacrified for the country’s cause, became a martyr. The cellular dark jails of the Andaman Islands, where the freedom fighters were kept, are full of stories of the martyrs. The stone walls of the jail echoe the sufferings and torture of the freedom fighters, many of whom were killed inside the jail. The Martyrs’ Day is an occasion to remember all our martyrs and work for the country’s peace, unity, progress and welfare. During the last eventful phase of his life, Gandhiji worked for establishing peace, amity and brotherhood among people and died while working for this mission. Let us remember his work for peace, amity and brotherhood. (PIB) *Journalist and freedom fighter who was eye witness to Gandhiji’s assassination How to cite Martyrs Day, Essay examples

Chi-Square Test free essay sample

Chi-square is a statistical test commonly used to compare observed data with data we would expect to obtain according to a specific hypothesis. For example, if, according to Mendels laws, you expected 10 of 20 offspring from a cross to be male and the actual observed number was 8 males, then you might want to know about the goodness to fit between the observed and expected. Were the deviations (differences between observed and expected) the result of chance, or were they due to other factors.How much deviation can occur before you, the investigator, must conclude that something other than chance is at work, causing the observed to differ from the expected. The chi-square test is always testing what scientists call the null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference between the expected and observed result. The formula for calculating chi-square ( ) is: 2= (o-e) ? /e That is, chi-square is the sum of the squared difference between observed (o) and the expected ( e) data (or the deviation, d), divided by the expected data in all possible categories. We will write a custom essay sample on Chi-Square Test or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Determine a relative standard to serve as the basis for accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. The relative standard commonly used in biological research is p ; 0. 05. The p value is the probability that the deviation of the observed from that expected is due to chance alone (no other forces acting). In this case, using p ; 0. 05, you would expect any deviation to be due to chance alone 5% of the time or less. . Refer to a chi-square distribution table Using the appropriate degrees of freedom, locate the value closest to your calculated chi-square in the table. Determine the closest probability(p) value associated with your chi-square and degrees of freedom. Step-by-Step Procedure for Testing Your Hypothesis and Calculating Chi-Square 1. State the hypothesis being tested and the predicted results. Gather the data by conducting the proper experiment (or, if working genetics problems, use the data provided in the problem). 2.Another way of looking at that is to ask if the frequency distribution fits a specific pattern. Two values are involved, an observed value, which is the frequency of a category from a sample, and the expected frequency, which is calculated based upon the claimed distribution. The derivation of the formula is very similar to that of the variance which was done earlier (chapter 2 or 3). The idea is that if the observed frequency is really close to the claimed (expected) frequency, then the square of the deviations will be small.The square of the deviation is divided by the expected frequency to weight frequencies. A difference of 10 may be very significant if 12 was the expected frequency, but a difference of 10 isnt very significant at all if the expected frequency was 1200. If the sum of these weighted squared deviations is small, the observed frequencies are close to the expected frequencies and there would be no reason to reject the claim that it came from that distribution. Only when the sum is large is the a reason to question the distribution. Therefore, the chi-square goodness-of-fit test is always a right tail test.

Alexei Nicholaevich Romanov Essays - , Term Papers

Alexei Nicholaevich Romanov Adam Mitchell 2/6/01 A)1904-1910 Alexei Nicholaevich Romanov was born the youngest of four daughters. To Nicholas Romanov the second, and Alexandra Feodorovna Romanov. He was to be the Tsar of Russia. When he was born he was diagnosed with hemophilia a disease which with one cut could be fatal for you bleed a lot. This disease had been in the family for a long time. Anytime Alexei would feel ill Grigorri Rasbutin would be summoned to the palace to cure Alexei and he always did. As a child he often attended balls and attend formal functions with his family. Occasionally he would get to act as the Tsarvich. All other times he was usually in bed suffering excruciating pain because of his illness. During this time his mother accompanied him all the time and therefore got a bad reputation for not loving her people or her country. He was also not allowed to do much as a small child such as play with his cousins or ride a bicycle. The only people he actually played with were his sisters. Because of him not being allowed to do anything he was spoiled, and became very temper mental. B)1910-1915 After World War 1 started Alexei's father took full control of the military. Alexei often accompanied him in the military bases. One day Alexei was shocked to see children his age with burns, bullet wounds or severed limbs. He immediately left the camp to return home. On the way he got a cold, sneezed and popped a blood vessel and started bleeding uncontrollably they chose a drastic method to stop the bleeding it worked and left Alexei passed out. C)1915-1917 During this time the war raged on between Russia and Germany. Russia was not doing very good. At home the Tsar's wife drove the government into the ground and the Tsar's popularity with the people went down. The Tsar's did not keep their people happy and they sparked a revolution. Soon the Tsar was forced to abdicate his throne and upon his return to Tsarskoe-Selo he and his family were arrested and put in jail. The people wanted to share the rule with Nicholas. Like in England, they wanted a constitutional monarchy. D)1917-1918 During this time Nicholas did not give the power to Alexei because of his failing health. He gave it to his Brother Michael Alexandrovich he gave the power to the people. Alexei realized he would never be the Tsar. From April of 1917 to July of 1918 the royal family was imprisoned. During this time the family had strong hope that they would be saved so they sewed jewels into their undergarments. On July 17,1918 the royal family was woken up early, and led to the basement they were told that they were to wait there for a car to arrive. To their surprise they were told they are going to be put to death for crimes against the people of Russia. Bullets had been fired at every one and the women would not die because of the jewels the bullets could not go through. Because of Alexei's stays at the camps he knew many of the guards, and one of the guards he knew was assigned to kill him. The guard could not kill him but he was forced to he fired at his head the bullet hit his left ear, Alexei fell to the ground. Later on as they were taking the bodies in a truck to burry them, the truck got stuck in the mud. A local farmer was forced to carry three body's wrapped in sheets. When one of them started to move he took it home, later he discovered the Tsarvich Alexei. And made him one of his family members. E)1917-1930 During this period Alexei took the name Vasily Filatov he lived in fear through out all these years afraid someone would find out his secret, therefore he never talked about it with his new family. Many people could not believe he was from a poor family. Because he was so well educated. F)1930-1960 During this Time Alexei living as Vasily Filatov married and had 3 children Oleg Filatov, Olga Filatov, Nadezha Filatov and Irina Filatov. Alexei carried on a normal life during this time still keeping

Outline and Critically Assess Rhodes Argument About Hollowing Out of the State Essays

Outline and Critically Assess Rhodes Argument About Hollowing Out of the State Essays Outline and Critically Assess Rhodes Argument About Hollowing Out of the State Essay Outline and Critically Assess Rhodes Argument About Hollowing Out of the State Essay This paper will in the first instance define the term, Hollowing Out Of The State, as Rhodes presented it in 1994. The origins of the hollowing out process related to contemporary policy process in Britain will be outlined followed by a summary of the themes and consequences identified by the author. Alternative perspectives on the theme of hollowing out will be contrasted in an attempt to assess the validity of the claim that government in Britain is being hollowed out. In his essay concerning the hollowing out process, Rhodes is concerned with the erosion of British public sector provision within government and the fact that erosion has taken place from within government itself through a process of delegation, decentralisation and privitisation. In order to understand the main themes of hollowing out, it is important to understand the origins and impetus, which created the need for change. Although there is a long history of transition and alteration to the British system of political administration, the contemporary process of hollowing out can be reasonably traced to the election of the New Right government and Mrs. Thatcher in 1979. During this period, the institutions of social democracy were under severe pressure throughout the 1970s. Through growing power of pressure groups such as Trade Unions, Internal pressures within the Union from the troubles of Northern Ireland and the failed devolution bill in Scotland. On an international basis, the global economy made a contribution to Britains decline in the shape of soaring interest rates, high inflation and massive government expenditure. Spending by central government in the late 70s rose to approximately 43% of GDP. The country moved toward a position of ungovernability and near bankruptcy. As a consequence, government lost the confidence of the electorate and in these circumstances Mrs. Thatcher was elected in 1979. The Conservative government would embark upon a programme aiming to reduce the interfering role of the Nanny State, cut unnecessary waste, overspending and create the wealth needed to return the country to stability. On taking office, the Conservatives intended to reduce the number of unelected bodies but political circumstance did not permit such a response. Mrs. Thatcher was unable to delegate responsibilities from central to local government because of the latters domination by left wing opponents. One nation ideology prevented the use of devolution whilst the confrontational and disruptive melee of Westminster could also disrupt the progress needed to deliver reform. This meant that to some extent, Mrs. Thatcher was forced to look to quasi government and reform of the civil service in order to enact her programme. The difficulty facing the government during this period is highlighted by Gamble (1994). Success depended upon a party pledged to a New Right agenda first obtaining a mandate to reform in a political market corrupted by decades of state intervention, and then carrying it through with the assistance of agencies of the extended state p39 The mandate for the New Right was given in the general election victory in 1979, allowing Thatcher to initiate a programme to restore the authority of government and expand the agencies of the extended state. It is the consequences of this programme which create the main themes and features of hollowing out. Rhodes provides four trends which characterise the transition which took place; 1. Privitisation and limiting the scope and forms of public intervention. 2. The loss of functions by central and local government departments to alternative service delivery (such as agencys). 3. The loss of functions by British Governments to European Union institutions. 4. Limiting the discretion of public servants through the new public management, with its emphasis on managerial accountability, and sharper distinction between politics and administration. P139 Amongst the principle aims of the Conservative government was stopping the state from being involved in every aspect of peoples lives and to reduce the physical bulk of government. This was done in two ways: firstly, through a programme of privitisation, notable in the form of release from government of major utilities and industries such as Coal, Gas, Shipbuilding, Steel, Electricity and Telecommunications. Secondly, through rationalisation at administrative and operational level involving comprehensive review and the introduction of new management techniques. First of all by reviewing where efficiencies could be made and identifying the areas of government to be reduced or transferred to quasi government and privitisation. Harold Wilsons Labour governments of the 1960s began the process but the Thatcher government brought it into central government and greatly extended it. Areas of departmental responsibility first effected by changes included cleansing and catering. In addition to the effect on central departments, this also reduced the influence and responsibility of local authorities whilst validating cuts in their annual budgets. The role of local authorities were being transformed from that of major employer and service provider to one of overseer and enabler as Rhodes points out, The role of local government is to facilitate the delivery of services by others and oversee performance p241 Further reductions in local authority remit effected departments of Housing, Education, Parks Recreation and Direct Works to name a few, altering their position in the community. Much of the power and responsibility of all government departments was dissipated. Rhodes goes on to explain that, as the government sought to release responsibility internally, the relationship evolving with the European Community proved to be the opposite. It is generally recognised that Britain has been the reluctant member of the European Community over the duration of membership. However, in relation to hollowing out, Europe has the effect of eroding the sovereign powers of the British parliamentary system and contributing to fragmentation of the policy making process across the country. As the major agreements made within the European Union grow in significance towards full integration, the central position of authority of Westminster in continually undermined. In addition, the European Unions commitment to the principle of regional representation through subsiduarity also reduces Westminster as a centre of power. This is evident in the potential for access to new policy networks open to the assemblies of Wales and Scotland as they build recognition of Brussels as equal or superior to London. It could be argued that amongst the most significant changes in the reform process are those related to new managerialism in the civil service which will limit the discretion of public service. These developments were initiated with the appointment of Derek Raynor from industry in order to audit government departments and services. The aim was to reduce costs by pursuing the three Es of efficiency, economy and effectiveness. It would begin the process of moving civil servants from administration of policy to management of implementation. Each department would produce individual plans of action with specific objectives designed to meet targets set in advance. These changes would assist the Thatcher government to politically justify strategy but the failure of reforms to deliver successful results was revealed by the review process in 1988. This would lead to the implementation of the Next Steps Initiative designed to further clarify the separation of policy maker from policy implantation. Rhodes (1997) outlines the critical recommendation of the Efficiency Unit report, stating that The management revolution was only skin- deep and recommended introducing agencies to carry out the executive functions of government and bring about real financial and managerial change p95 This was a crucial point in the process of hollowing out as British governance moved from rationalisation of legitimate responsibility to extended delegation through non-elected and anonymous bodies. With this change in the nature of quasi government, Rhodes raises the question of accountability and control. The development of new agencies to cover an expanding list of government practice caused fragmentation throughout the policy network and difficulties in maintaining adequate channels of communication between relevant actors. Rhodes cites Hesse to illustrate the difficulties arising in this regard, Advocates of decentralised self guidance and control often fail to realise that highly differentiated and pluralistic fragmented institutional systems create a growing need for collective steering, planning and consensus building 146 The Next Steps initiative was taken in response to a lack of success of reform, an imbalance was perceived in the policy process, there was too much emphasis on political issues and not enough on policy implementation. The consequence was the creation of agencies with greater autonomy from government to implement policy outcomes. These agencies needed to be as diverse as the departments they served, covering such aspects as stationary, defense, health, fire safety, coastguard, social security, employment or child support for example. Rather than achieving previously unmet targets, Rhodes argues that the opposite was more likely. The National Health Service for example, has always been at the forefront of government reform. However in recent months the government has entered into agreements with private health care trusts to utilise spare capacity to compensate for continuing overload in the NHS. There are grounds to suggest that the difficulties incurred in 1979 are being incurred in 2000. These difficulties are potentially duplicated across the breadth of the policy network. The lack of adequate measures to ensure communication and co-operation increase innefiency and waste, in addition because the legislative process undertaken has been so complex, the drive for efficiency and cost cutting diminishes the room for maneuver within government departments or ministers. Rhodes highlights the problem as follows; Such networks restrict who contributes to policy making and policy implementation. They routinise the policy process. They are also a form of private government. P148 In the latter point, Rhodes highlights a crucial outcome from the proliferation of agencies, accountability. If responsibility for implementation of government policy is too diverse then accountability and control are confused and disparate. The most notable example of confusion was highlighted by BBC 2s Newsnight, when Jeremy Paxman attempted to clarify the role of Home Secretary Michael Howard in the sacking of Derek Lewis who was Chief Executive of the Prison Service when high profile prisoners escaped from prison. It could be argued that little has changed when observing the recent debacle in the Scottish Executive over the delivery of examination results by the Scottish Qualifications Authority. Resignations have taken place from the agency whilst the minister responsible has moved to a new post. Accountability for politicians have shifted, they no longer resign, instead, they attend select committee hearings. The accountability and control of the policy process from parliament itself has been undermined. Rhodes uses the example of the dissolution of the Greater London Council to illustrate the point, Under the Greater London Council (GLC), rate payers paid their rates to four bodies. After abolition of the GLC, they paid taxes to 17 bodies, two thirds of which are unelected p148 Similar example exists in the case of Strathclyde Regional Council, which was dismantled on ideological grounds but in doing so further weakened democratic accountability. The concluding themes of the hollowing out are concerned with such consequences. The changes made in extending networks beyond the reach of their optimum productivity illustrates a transition from government problem solving, to government as the creator of political crisis. The process moved from necessary rationalisation of overloaded government to the creation of over extended and less controllable quasi government in the form of non-elected agencies. The original measures taken to cut costs and achieve greater efficiencies create the lack of experience and knowledge. Competition for contracts equates to the loss of quality and priorities based upon survival of the fittest. The problem set out in the beginning has not been diminished, as there is still evidence of overload. This is supported by Foster and Plowden (1996) when they state that, Activities have been transferred from local government to centrally appointed and directly appointed bodies, and the creation of arms-length agencies within central government has perversely, involved ministers more in their affairs. And ministers are more directly involved in policy formulation than before p219 Rhodes offers three main reasons behind the argument for a return to bureaucracy as a potential solution to the problems caused by hollowing out. Firstly return to balance rather than fragmentation, secondly, public sector record of delivery is as good as private sector and has better flexibility in meeting problems and challenges and thirdly in order to restore accountability and democracy to the policy process in government. Overall, hollowing out illustrates a process that has created less accountable and less effective, reduced government than previous systems. The difficulties of quasi government outweigh the benefits in terms of the problems which reforms set out to solve. In Rhodes view, the private sector is not the fix all that Mrs. Thatcher in particular said it would be. Beneath the veneer on of the British political landscape, the same issues apply in 2000, which existed in 1979. There are alternative views to the hollowing out process; the following section of this paper will attempt to highlight a selection of key points. Michael Seaward outlines an alternative view of what was arguably the most visable and significant programme undertaken by Mrs. Thatcher and highlighted in hollowing out: Privitisation, Decentralisation and Agencification. The achievements of the Conservative governments programme of privitisation were significant, creating major industries in global markets such as BT in telecommunications for example. However many of the privitised industries have led a much more troubled existence. The British coalfield is almost gone altogether, in recent weeks the lack of progress in the rail privitisation has come to the fore along with those of the water companies. The possibility should be considered that the motivations of the Thatcher privitisations were not only concerned with the difficulties of overload but also with the achievement of ideological change. Nationalisation was strongly associated with party allegiance in Britain; the move toward privitisation would create a fundamental change in the relationship between the electorate and the role of government. This is highlighted by Seaward (1997) when he states that, In majoritarian systems, privitisation may appear to be the hollowing out of the state but this trend can equally be interpreted in terms of core actors rationally reshaping the state to suit some of their primary ends (such as power, autonomy, protection from direct responsibility). P22 Privitisation serves two ends, firstly, to serve to lessen the overload on central government departments and ministers and secondly, to alter the perception of the electorate in relation to the role of government. Similarly, decentralisation as it is presented in the hollowing out does not appear to consider the consequences of an approach concerned with ideological change. The avoidance or negation of local authority responsibility was concerned with the confrontation of opposition as much as it was an attempt to reallocate resources and services. The transfer of responsibilities not only decreased the bulk of government but also dismantled a significant vehicle for the adversaries of the Thatcher project. This is also supported by Seaward (1997) when he cites King: The aim of these reforms is to marginalise local government as a political institution by creating local agencies to deliver policy and by denuding its representative function. P23 On the final theme of Agencification, Seaward focuss on the scope for interpretation of reform and the importance of the role of the minister in policy process rather than bureaucratic administration. When this separation was attempted, clear roles were identified for the politicians as representative, the civil servant or department as administrator and the arms length agency in the delivery mode of policy implementation In terms of Britains role within the European Community, the case for the loss of sovereignty is a strong one. There is general agreement concerning the potential for Westminster to become secondary to the dealings of Brussels and its policy networks, as Gray (2000) confirms, In the case of increasing European Union involvement in the internal affairs of the state imply not so much a hollowing out of the state as an effective by pass of it altogether in some areas of policy and administration. The extension of qualified majority voting in the council of ministers extends the possibility of being by passed. P228 Once again this view is correct from a particular perspective but does not take into account the interdependence of the European Union at its centre with the member organisations, which give it life. Britain enters into negotiation with all other partners and retains the power of veto in important areas. Once again a consideration of ideological preference is necessary. This is evident in the Labour governments moves toward partial incorporation in the social charter which was resisted throughout the life of the Conservative government. In terms of the administration of government, all issues in either Brussels or London do not effect each institution in equal measure. Rather than Europe swamping or negating British government, there is an argument for mutual accommodation, illustrated by Smith (1999), Departments have attempted to integrate the EU throughout the department rather than concentrate it within a European co-ordination body as used to be the case. P242 The description of the hollowing out of the state, might better read as the redistribution of parliament and within the policy network, the restructuring of design, administration, delivery, evaluation and financing of the policy process. The arguments for and against the hollowing out process are strongly influenced by the perspective of the observer, the interpretations of the state and its mechanisms. After all of the change which has been undertaken on an economic or strategic basis, an interventionist government still presides over all in Britain and the bulk of government has not decreased. This view is supported by Smith (1999) when he states that, The government has continued to regulate the privitised monopolies, there has been little reduction in the level of public expenditure, and it has intervened greatly in the reforms of health and education, (Richardson, 1993). In other words, the state has been reshaped rather than hollowed out. P205 Here is the crux of the issue; much of the bulk of government, which was, portrayed as such a danger by Mrs. Thatcher in 1979 remains largely intact. Privitisation and quangocracies have not lessened the extent of government; rather they have helped to dismantle it to be put back together in a different order. This is evident in the move to the centre, if not the right of the political spectrum by the Labour Party in order to regain power. It could be argued that Mrs. Thatcher failed in her political aims of reduced government and strong state but was highly successful in her attempt to alter the ideological perspective of the British political landscape. She has ensured that the devide between the pragmatic actions of the conservatives and the collective actions of the socialists has been drastically reduced. The determining factor in this change is leadership and this is supported by Smith (1999) when he states that, leaders often have legitimacy, and the electoral and parliamentary support, to take to take authoritative decisions and therefor to orient the policy directions of networks p243 The conclusion of this paper is that bearing in mind, the significance of an ideological origin to the process, there is strong evidence that the hollowing out of the state has and is continuing to take place. However it is doing so in conjunction with the restructuring of parliamentary structure and continuous adjustment of the actors and responses within the policy network. Only in this fuller sense can the hollowing out of the state be applied to the evolution of the policy process in Britain. What has remained constant or grown in strength throughout this process are the executors of power in the core of government. Although lines of accountability remain, the likelihood of recrimination for wrongdoing has become more unlikely and this is a cause for concern for the future. Both the hollowing out of the state and the strengthening of the core executive remain a matter of ongoing process.

Common Welfare Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Common Welfare - Essay Example One of the first elements that define common welfare is with regards to the fact that the very same values that are used to fulfilling interpersonal relationships are also used towards fulfilling the needs of broader society; namely cooperation, appreciation, democracy, confidence building, and solidarity. With respect to the way in which this would work within and implementation level, it must be understood that this particular aspect of the theory is inarguable and must be accepted due to the fact that it is been proven to work throughout society and to be true as a whole. A secondary core element of this economic and social theory is that a fundamental shift must be made away from seeking profit and dominance within a given market alone. Instead, individuals should seek to maximize the common good. With respect to this particular approach, it must be denoted that this is an idyllic vision of the way in which a business interactions should take place; and one that is unlikely to su cceed in the real world. A third core element of the common welfare approach is the understanding that a regulatory framework is needed in order to encourage the shift away from a competition and profit based approach. This could foreseeable be engaged; however, the costs of implementing such a system, with respect to the lost efficiency that this would necessarily entail, could be massive. A fourth key factor of the theory is that the more effective/better the common welfare is, the more legal advantages will be passed along to the company in question; i.e. lower taxes, reduced customs/duties, loan rates etc. Although this may be true, the ultimate time that would take for the common welfare approach to signify a total and complete change to the entire economy could be far longer than might be expected; thereby leading to a breakdown in the system. A fifth cornerstone that is noted is that the financial balance sheet, the gold standard that has been used to measure success within p revious models, must become a secondary balance sheet alongside the common welfare balance sheet. The difficulty in this is that elements of common welfare are extremely difficult to measure; as compared to their more numeric and quantitative economic counterparts. This calls into question the efficiency or effectiveness of that such an approach could engender. Items 6 points to the fact that once a company is free of the drive to continue to promote profitability, it can then focus upon growing to the optimal size; keeping in mind that this optimal size does not necessarily denote complete domination of the market. The shortcoming that is inherent within this particular approach is the fact that such an approach decreases the incentive that a firm has to continue to provide a high quality of goods/services and merely seeks to survive. Item 7 discusses the way that cooperation and solidarity can become evidenced within firms that espouse the common welfare approach. This may indeed be true; however, once again, the incentive to cooperate and work together to

Creative writing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Creative writing - Essay Example I tried to muff my laughter but the sound was already obvious to him, He continued his hobby while turning his back on me. "Sixteen seventeen eighteen nineteen twenty." I already knew he was through with his play. "So, there were only twenty stars tonight" I said sarcastically. "No," came the mechanical remark. "There are more than twenty. There are millions out there, my mother told me so," he said. This would have been the end of our repetitious nightly conversation, being irritated I chose to say something more. "Why then did you stop" I retorted. "I can only count up to twenty you know, my mother died before she could teach me the next number," the boy said in a sad way. I was taken aback by his frankness. I had been sitting with this boy for the past ten sunsets on the aged breakwater, all I knew before was he enjoyed counting stars, just that guilt laden, I tried to make up for my rude attitude by being kinder. "Why are you here every night, don't you have a family or someone to take care of you" He kept silent for a while. "Hey, Are you mad at me" I said with further guilt. "No, I am used to being laughed at by people when I count stars, about a family, my mother was my only family." He looked up and pretended to count the stars again just as he did this a tear rolled down his cheek, which he quickly wiped with his shirt. I wanted to say something but my tongue got numb a t the sight of the little boy. "Bit your tongue, Mister" the boy asked. I could not answer him for a couple of minutes. "You seem to enjoy yourself when you count stars here in the breakwater." I heard myself mutter. The boy spoke in a sadder tone, "They're the only one's I've got and I have no other place to go." I knew then that I had been a trespasser to his home starting the night I comfortably took a big portion of his spot. "Don't you have a family of your own" the boy asked me eagerly. I felt awkward and refused to answer. "Hey! Are you mad at me" the boy said chuckling. I felt my lips grin at his action, the first smile in a week's time. "I have no use for one," I lied. "I wish you have one because it really feels good to have people who care for you," I heard him say this as he got close to my side. " When my mother was alive we were a happy family, just the two of us," he added, as he threw a stone at the calm ocean. "Why do count stars" I asked him, trying to think of a better way to change the subject about families. He replied, "Because they're beautiful." He pointed at a star with the most lustrous ray, "That star is my mother!" he said happily. "How did you know" I said puzzled. "Because my heart says so, " he answered in utmost certainty. "Why count the others then" I said in a further puzzlement. He sighed, "For them not to be lonely." I looked at the sky and told him, "How can they be lonely There are a million of them out there!" The boy earnestly looked at my face and studied it carefully. He stood up, took a heavy breath and said, "Stars do not know each other, a star can only see the light of another. The distance between them is too great to let their lights warm each other's loneliness." "Do you think you can make them all happy You cannot count all of them, you know," I said truthfully. He

Managerial and Cost Accounting Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Managerial and Cost Accounting - Assignment Example Ross used to influence people only through his teaching inside the classroom. He neither wrote an article or a book in order to influence people like most writer or professors generally do. The author became a research assistant to Mr. Ross in the year 1940 for a second-year course named Control, a course which is a sort of contrast with the traditional Cost Accounting course. Nevertheless, the course became successful as a result of the reputation Mr. Ross has got as an impressive teacher of accounting at Harvard. The first appearance of management accounting in textbooks was, I believe, a first-year accounting text entitled Management Accounting: Text and Cases (Anthony; now Anthony and Reece) published in 1956. This text contained a series of detailed cost-accounting cases. A similar text by Massachusetts Institute of Technology professors appeared at approximately the same time written by Hill and Gordon in the year 1959. In the year 1965, a monograph named Planning and Control S ystems – A Framework for Analysis, written by the author was published by the Harvard Business School. It was the culmination of a series of meetings of the Harvard Business School Control faculty. Unlike most other Harvard Business School publications at that time, it proposed a framework rather than describing the results of a study of actual performance. It was written in the article that there is a contrast between Management Accounting and Cost Accounting.

Detecting Spam Zombies by Monitoring Outgoing Messages

Detecting Spam Zombies by Monitoring Outgoing Messages Abstract: Compromised machines are one of the key security threats on the Internet. They are often used to launch various security attacks such as spamming and spreading malware [15]. Given that spamming provides a key economic incentive for attackers to recruit a large number of compromised machines, we focus on the detection of the compromised machines in a network that are involved in the spamming activities, commonly known as spam zombies [12]. Introduction: As the use of internet increased in the era of science and technology the problem of spam has also been increased. There are multiple ways in which spam takes place we would like to discuss the spam that is passed through messages specifically through emails. When these spam mails are passed into the system these makes the system compromised and the data in the network can be stolen or lost these kind of spamming is more concern to the industry or any kind of organization where privacy is the key aspect in this competitive world. Spam: Spam can be defined as Simple Pointless Annoying Messages. According to US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) spam is defined as, any commercial electronic mail message sent, often in bulk, to a consumer without the consumers prior request or consent [1]. A recent study conducted by SMX an email security provider the percentage of spam is about 80% approx. And the average size of these spam messages in 16 Kb [2]. The results above indicate the seriousness of the problem. There are several techniques proposed and employed in filtering these spam messages such as Machine learning techniques like Neural networks(NN), Support Vector Machines(SVM), Naive Bayes Classifier. Some techniques are based on probability and others on architectural. According to Anil Kumar Gupta along with two others in his research paper stated that training SVM is easy compared to NN because NN takes more time to train than SVM and NN will not offer binary classification mechanism where has SVM does that technique t o verify the legitimate of the email [2]. Rafiqul Islam in his research proposed an architecture for spam filtering based on support vector machine [3].   T. Hamsapriya along with three others in 2014 proposed Filtered Bayesian Learning technique to increase the performance of the naÃÆ' ¯ve Bayes classifier. These all techniques have contributed in controlling spam to very much extent [4]. Spam Zombies: A machine is said to be compromised if it is successfully exploited by the attacker. These machines are used to launch various attacks in the network. These compromised machines are called zombies. The machine is made compromised when an attacker sends a spam mail to the targeted system and made a zombie [5]. Spam in Messages: Todays communication mostly happening through messages that are sent electronically through email or text messages in mobile. Our main concentration is confined to messages that are going out through a network and coming into the network that are emails. Body message based spam detection is employed in larger servers but in a research conducted by Shukor Bin Abdul Razak in 2013 showed that the feature can be manipulated and has several issues such as Manipulation of lexical patterns, efficiency, future trends. So he proposed an email header technique that has a potential in filtering spam efficiently [6]. In 2015 Wazir Zada Khan along with three others stated that the detection criterion for web spam is substantially different, so, the email spam coming from botnets cannot be handled by the web spam detection techniques. Then they proposed architecture for email spam botnet detection [7]. Algorithm:  ­Ã‚ ­SPOT detection algorithm is used to detect spammers. Before proposing SPOT detection techniques there are few works which happened in detecting spam zombies. S. Yuvaraj in 2013 came up with a four module system which consists of compose mail process, Filter spam detect, IP capture, Extraction of payloads and payload disassembly and this algorithm is called has semantic aware statistical algorithm (SAS) [8]. But this algorithm fails to catch spammers but detects spam zombies. The research also proposed algorithms in the field of botnet which is usually called a group of computers affected with malware and controlled without the notice of administrator. To control these botnets issues Guofei Gu from Georgia institute of technology came up with bot hunter based on correlation between inbound and outbound communication. This system also uses intrusion detection system(IDS) to find out the compromised machines in the network [9]. Later in 2008 again Guofei Gu along with Wank Lee p roposed another technique called botsniffer in which he extended his research in detecting compromised servers depending on the behavioral similarity in a single group of connected computers [10]. After all these works with different techniques people came up with standard algorithm called SPOT applied in detecting spam zombies which functions by monitoring outgoing messages in the network. Z. Duzan in 2009 proposed an algorithm using Sequential Probability Ratio Test(SPRT) depending on the mathematical value of the SPRT the email is as spam or not spam [11]. But he ignored the impact of dynamic IP address on the data which is considered for analysis. His research is as limitations since the algorithm is based on probability analysis and the messages arrived assumed to independent of each other but this may not be the practical scenario. Spam filters are used to detect the spam emails but these filters are not 100 percent efficient. Later in 2012 Pen cheng along with Z.Duzan modifie d his algorithm they introduced two more terms   called count threshold   and percentage threshold to calculate the impact of dynamic IP address[12]. In continuation to the work of Z. Duzan, Ar. Arunachalam along with his two students in 2013 added two more modules and applied Z. Durzan techniques in calculating the impact of dynamic IP address to entire system by adding user interface module and spam zombie detection module where he has reset the values of the captured spam emails continuously [13]. Similar work has been done by R.Vasanth Kumar and K. Ravi Kumar in 2013 they modified the existing algorithm using the IP address of the sending machine and introducing a new term called message index[14].   Parvathi Bhadre and Deepthi Gothawal in 2014 proposed a new method using SPOT detection algorithm consisting of four modules namely virus checks, Spam Checks and Spam filter, blocking of spammers using SPOT and Recovery [15]. But their research does not talk any thing about the impact spam mails generated using dynamic IP address. In 2015 Anupsingh Thakur and Prof.Praful Sambhare conducted a survey on spamming and detection control through various methods like SVM, Domain key integrated mail system(DKIMS) and SPOT detection system defined how SPOT is accurate in detecting Spams [16]. Conclusion: Brief review on spam, spam zombies, spam in messages, algorithm used and the previous works done are explained. We in our project intending to come up with improved algorithm that could effectively tackle the limitations of the previous works. References: D. C. Washington, Unsolicited commercial e-mail before the SUBCOMMITTEE ON TELECOMMUNICATIONS, TRADE AND CONSUMER PROTECTION of the COMMITTEE ON COMMERCE UNITED STATES HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, 2013. [Online]. Available: https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/public_statements/prepared-statement-federal-trade-commission-spamming/spamtestimony1103.pdf. Accessed: Mar. 3, 2017. A. G. Kakade, P. K. Kharat, and Anil Kumar Gupta, Spam filtering techniques and MapReduce with SVM: A study, 2014 Asia-Pacific Conference on Computer Aided System Engineering (APCASE), vol. 14666087, pp. 59-64, Feb. 2014. R. I. M, W. Zhou, and M. U. Choudhury, Dynamic Feature Selection for Spam Filtering Using Support Vector Machine, 6th IEEE/ACIS International Conference on Computer and Information Science (ICIS 2007), vol. 9864217, Jul. 2007. H. T, L. S. P, K. R. D, and R. C. M, SPAM CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SUPERVISED LEARNING USING MACHINE LEARNING TECHNIQUES, ICTACT Journal on Communication Technology, vol. 02, no. 04, pp. 457-462, Dec. 2011. A. Rajagopal and A. P. P, SPOT- e-mail Spam zombie detection system, International Journal of Innovative Research in Computer and Communication Engineering, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 664-669, Jan. 2012. [Online]. Available: https://www.rroij.com/open-access/spot-email-spam-zombie-detection-system.php?aid=48276. Accessed: Mar. 3, 2017. S. Bin Abd Razak and A. F. Bin Mohamad, Identification of spam email based on information from email header, 2013 13th International Conference on Intellient Systems Design and Applications, pp. 347-353, Oct. 2014. W. Z. Khan, M. K. Khan, F. T. Bin Muhaya, M. Y. Aalsalem, and H.-C. Chao, A comprehensive study of Email Spam Botnet detection, IEEE Communications Surveys Tutorials, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 2271-2295, Jul. 2015. Y. M. S. S., An effective defense against compromised machines by sas worm detection, International Journal of Computer Science and Management Research, pp. 33-37, 2013. G. Gu, P. Porras, V. Yegneswaran, M. Fong, and W. Lee, BotHunter: Detecting Malware Infection Through IDS-Driven Dialog Correlation, 16th USENIX Security Symposium, pp. 167-182, 2007. G. Gu, W. Lee, and J. Zhang, Botsniffer: Detecting botnet command and control channels in network traffic, Proceedings of The 15th Annual Network and Distributed System Security Symposium (NDSS 2008), Feb. 2008. Z. Duan, P. Chen, F. Sanchez, Y. Dong, M. Stephenson, and J. Barker, Detecting Spam Zombies by Monitoring Outgoing Messages, IEEE INFOCOM 2009, 2009. Z. Duan, P. Chen, F. Sanchez, Y. Dong, M. Stephenson, and J. M. Barker, Detecting Spam zombies by monitoring outgoing messages, IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 198-210, Mar. 2012. A. Ar, V. V, and Y. V, Detecting Spam Zombies Using Spot Tool by Monitoring Outgoing Messages, International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science and Software Engineering, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 400-402, Apr. 2013. V. kumar R and R. K. K, Recognizing Spam Zombies by Monitoring leaving Messages, International Journal of Engineering and Computer Science, vol. 2, no. 11, pp. 3213-3216, Nov. 2013. P. Bhadre and D. Gothawal, Detection and blocking of spammers using SPOT detection algorithm, 2014 First International Conference on Networks Soft Computing (ICNSC2014), pp. 97-101, Aug. 2014. A. Thakur and P. Sambhare, Spamming and Detection Control: A Survey, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR RESEARCH IN EMERGING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, vol. 2, no. 5, pp. 155-157, May 2015.

Emotion and Diction in Richard Wright’s Book Black Boy :: Richard Wright’s Black Boy

Emotion and Diction in Richard Wright’s Book Black Boy Throughout Richard Wright’s book Black Boy, which represented his life, Richard used great emotion to show us how he was and what he may have been feeling. He also referred the book to his own life by using examples and making them as evidence in the book. His techniques and diction in this book gave a fire to his writing and a voice towards how it was for him growing up. Richard Wright’s main use was Pathos, which means emotion, to show us how he was feeling while he was writing this book. Was he anger or sad, excited or depressed. It all shows in his writing. I like the statement, â€Å" Dick, look, you’re black, black, black see? Can’t you understand that?† The way he used his emotion and it was like he was using anger in his writing to make a point. By saying â€Å"Can’t you understand that?† tells me that back in this time that there is something wrong with being black unlike today. Then another way in which he introduces emotion to us is by using the italicized words. For example, now and black. Doing this to these words give in a little more flavor and excitement. Then diction became another way in which he showed how one acts, how the scenery looks, and just describes the characters in different ways. In the statement â€Å" He lit a cigarette and blew out smoke leisurely† gives me a sense that the guy is some heavy weighted main that does not care and does what ever his heart pleases. Then in another statement like â€Å" Suddenly Griggs reached for my arm and jerked me violently, sending me stumbling three or four feet across pavement.† So if you were to read on you would know that he was doing that to teach Richard a lesson. But instead you got this picture in your mind of some man throwing down a child trying to hurt him. That is how strong Richard Wright’s diction is. So then when you read on it tells you that Richard is growing up and is learning about life. Then we have the evidence in which Richard Wright used to show how he feels and what happened to him in his life. First of all what we have to remember is that this book is basically prototype to his life.

My Experience

Nine weeks I’ve spent in this class, learning new techniques on studying, and learning new critical thinking strategies. Nine weeks that I’ve been in school again thinking and challenging myself and learning about a variety of new things. These last nine weeks have reminded me about the long term effects that higher education will have on my future employment and current job. This class has gave me so many tools that I can use in my everyday life. These last nine weeks have helped me get my mechanics back together academically I would say. I been out of school for about six months and I haven’t been reading, just working since I came out of school. Recently in class I relearned how to take Cornell Style notes, it’s like a lost art nowadays this note taking. My experience in this class was great overall for being my first time taking an online class. I enjoyed my time because with my work schedule always varying, this class came in handy letting me log in at times when other classes are long finished. This specific course was helpful in that it helped me see there’s more ways of doing things and not to worry about stressing yourself out. One of the most important things this class taught me was collaborative learning is an important aspect of life. I say that because every time we comment on things the atmosphere on the forum is good because it seems like we were constantly feeding off each others answers. The posts always seemed to drag on and for most of week, and I believe that collaborative learning works best in environments like this. The other most important thing I learned here was the value of setting goals for yourself. Whether they be big or small, important or non important setting goals is helpful in accomplishing certain tasks in a fast and secure manner. What also makes it worth while is when you have a big goal and you have little goals in between set in front of you that you must overcome. To me goal setting has usually made me strive to do things better and faster. I believe that the long term benefits of having a education will help you with employment opportunities. I think that having a degree from University of Phoenix will greatly increase my chances of getting promoted because the school has a name for itself at several different companies. At my job alone we have 7 people that graduated from this school in the past year. I also think that with an education you’re more likely to have stability in the workplace, when there is a mass let go phrase, companies tend to keep their educated employees over noneduacated. The tools and assessments in from this course will help me in my future courses and jobs because one of the tools I learned was goal setting. Which will help me keep focus at the task at hand. I also Learned that its okay to learn different things, in an collaborative environment its okay to feed off each, but not steal each others ideas. Which in my current position at work ripping off peoples ideas is spreading like wildfire. Its like some people at my job have been biten by the copy bug. One of the most useful things I learned in this class was how to use the library. I think a lot us take it for granted because they don’t know how to use it. The library allows me to search for articles pertaining to any subject. Also the library tools such as the plagiarism finder, it checks your paper for any plagiarized material. Also the citiation tool is very helpful because it sites everything for you. So, in conclusion; nine weeks have come and gone. Finishing this class is just a goal I set when I started this program. I think collaborative learning is something that can be useful whether it be in a classroom environment or business environment. This class has taught me if you apply yourself and use critical thinking when striving for a goal you can achieve what you set your mind to. My Experience Nine weeks I’ve spent in this class, learning new techniques on studying, and learning new critical thinking strategies. Nine weeks that I’ve been in school again thinking and challenging myself and learning about a variety of new things. These last nine weeks have reminded me about the long term effects that higher education will have on my future employment and current job. This class has gave me so many tools that I can use in my everyday life. These last nine weeks have helped me get my mechanics back together academically I would say. I been out of school for about six months and I haven’t been reading, just working since I came out of school. Recently in class I relearned how to take Cornell Style notes, it’s like a lost art nowadays this note taking. My experience in this class was great overall for being my first time taking an online class. I enjoyed my time because with my work schedule always varying, this class came in handy letting me log in at times when other classes are long finished. This specific course was helpful in that it helped me see there’s more ways of doing things and not to worry about stressing yourself out. One of the most important things this class taught me was collaborative learning is an important aspect of life. I say that because every time we comment on things the atmosphere on the forum is good because it seems like we were constantly feeding off each others answers. The posts always seemed to drag on and for most of week, and I believe that collaborative learning works best in environments like this. The other most important thing I learned here was the value of setting goals for yourself. Whether they be big or small, important or non important setting goals is helpful in accomplishing certain tasks in a fast and secure manner. What also makes it worth while is when you have a big goal and you have little goals in between set in front of you that you must overcome. To me goal setting has usually made me strive to do things better and faster. I believe that the long term benefits of having a education will help you with employment opportunities. I think that having a degree from University of Phoenix will greatly increase my chances of getting promoted because the school has a name for itself at several different companies. At my job alone we have 7 people that graduated from this school in the past year. I also think that with an education you’re more likely to have stability in the workplace, when there is a mass let go phrase, companies tend to keep their educated employees over noneduacated. The tools and assessments in from this course will help me in my future courses and jobs because one of the tools I learned was goal setting. Which will help me keep focus at the task at hand. I also Learned that its okay to learn different things, in an collaborative environment its okay to feed off each, but not steal each others ideas. Which in my current position at work ripping off peoples ideas is spreading like wildfire. Its like some people at my job have been biten by the copy bug. One of the most useful things I learned in this class was how to use the library. I think a lot us take it for granted because they don’t know how to use it. The library allows me to search for articles pertaining to any subject. Also the library tools such as the plagiarism finder, it checks your paper for any plagiarized material. Also the citiation tool is very helpful because it sites everything for you. So, in conclusion; nine weeks have come and gone. Finishing this class is just a goal I set when I started this program. I think collaborative learning is something that can be useful whether it be in a classroom environment or business environment. This class has taught me if you apply yourself and use critical thinking when striving for a goal you can achieve what you set your mind to.

The Great Gatsby Study Essays

The Great Gatsby Study Essays The Great Gatsby Study Essay The Great Gatsby Study Essay Essay Topic: Literature The conclusion of any novel should be both memorable for the reader and resonate with the main themes of the novel (i. e. the ultimate viewpoint of the author). The Great Gatsby manages to do this successfully, but only thanks to the last page of the novel, which contains exceptionally poignant and expressive writing. By the end of the novel, the main action of the novel (i. e. he passage between the confrontation of Gatsby and Tom at the Plaza Hotel and the deaths of Gatsby and Wilson) has happened: the novel has reached its climax, and now it is losing momentum fast. This leads to an inevitable feeling that the rest of the novel is somewhat of a formality, included merely to tie up the loose ends of the storyline. This lends this last section of a thought-provoking novel a rather artificial feeling, rather self-conscious and detached segment. By the time the reader reaches the very last section, the novel has lost the frenetic pace and contrast that characterised the chapters immediately preceding this conclusion and so the reader may be losing interest, meaning the ending is not memorable thus far. Fitzgerald has, though, worked very hard to emphasise many themes (Gatsbys funeral is poorly attended, showing his lack of actual status, Toms defiance and indifference, showing the amorality of the upper classes) in the closing stages of the novel, even through the lack of action in these closing stages. In the very last section of the novel (from Gatsbys house was still empty when I left), Nicks reflection is highly melancholic and contemplative Fitzgerald employs many aspects of narrative here to convey a sense of sombre finality. The lack of voice in this last section contributes to the feeling of loneliness (perhaps indicative of the true loneliness of Gatsbys life, even during his rampant parties, let alone in his death) and allows the narrative to become focused on Nicks brooding and pensive viewpoint. A good example of Nicks viewpoint is the description of Gatsbys mansion as a huge incoherent failure of a house, reinforcing the idea that Nick pushes throughout the novel: that social mobility is impossible, and that Gatsbys attempt to transform himself into a member of the elite social circles has failed (the failure here symbolised by the brand spanking new mock-Gothic mansion). The setting also shows the ultimate futility of Gatsbys dream: the grass on his lawn had grown as long as mine the reader is reminded of Gatsbys disdain of Nicks lawn when discussing the possibility of a reunion with Daisy, which only further stresses that all of Gatsbys hard work can be so easily undone, also showing the strength of time, and how no-one (not even the Great Gatsby) can emerge from a battle with time victorious; On the white steps (of Gatsbys mansion) an obscene word, scrawled by some boy with a piece of brick, stood out clearly in the moonlight this highlights the facts that Gatsby could never really integrate into East American society and that there are very few people that care for him (also shown by the pitiful attendance at his funeral). The American Dream is also dealt with in this final section, with Fitzgerald touching upon the dreams of the first American settlers and their similarities to those of Gatsby: they both saw a country with the scope for infinite possibility; a wondrous opportunity to re-invent themselves in a new land. Where this may have once been true, it does not need to be stated by Fitzgerald that Gatsby has failed to achieve this, adding to the feeling of sympathy and sheer sadness in the ending of the novel, portraying Gatsby, once again, as a victim of the changed times (i. e. a time where social classes have become fixed). Fitzgerald has hinted to the importance of time in the section already (as shown above): he also employs time as a device twice more, the second instance being one of the most powerful devices in the entire novel. The first instance is when Nick describes spending his Saturday nights in New York because he was constantly reminded of Gatsbys dazzling, gleaming parties when in West Egg, showing how Nicks life has been greatly impacted upon by Gatsby, but also showing how he wishes to forget the oppressive revelry and decadence of those parties, the latter of which shows that Gatsbys attempts to make himself popular end up pushing even those closest to him away, again highlighting the harsh hopelessness of his dream. The second (incredibly powerful) instance where Fitzgerald uses time embodies many themes of the book: Gatsby believed in the green light, the orgastic future that year by year recedes before us. It eludes us then, but thats no matter tomorrow we will run faster, stretch out our arms further And one fine morning So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past. It is on this note that Fitzgerald ends the novel, a note of despair at the foolishness of human optimism; a note of frustration at the impossibility of reaching the green light, regardless of its seeming proximity; a note of hopelessness concerning the irresistible pull of the past, haunting those who strive to transcend its boundaries. The moving ambiguity of the final segment shows Nick neither rejecting nor accepting the American Dream as a reality, merely his thoughts on the difficulty in achieving it, interlaced with a thoughtful farewell to his friend, who tried and failed to transform his dreams into a reality. It is, then, the last page or so of The Great Gatsby that saves the conclusion of the story. Previously, Fitzgerald had pushed the story into a state of relaxed formality which, following the breakneck pace of the climactic scenes, seemed almost irrelevant. The novel had made the transition from action to contemplation effectively, but was in danger of stagnating into a rather lifeless ending. It is on the last pages, where Nick (Fitzgerald) describes the fruitlessness of dreams with such expressiveness, that the ending transforms from being slightly formulaic into being a swirling cocktail of emotions and ideas on life, touching on issues almost shockingly fundamental with the characteristic exquisite simplicity that flows through the veins of this brilliant tale, making the conclusion both memorable for the reader and reflective of the prevalent themes of the novel.

Figurative and Alternate Meanings for 20 Medical Terms

Figurative and Alternate Meanings for 20 Medical Terms Figurative and Alternate Meanings for 20 Medical Terms Figurative and Alternate Meanings for 20 Medical Terms By Mark Nichol Words used to describe medical conditions or phenomena often acquire new connotations by extension of the original meaning, though sometimes the medical meaning followed rather than fostered the other. Here are twenty such terms and their other senses, as well as the initial definition. 1. Anemic: lacking in some quality, such as energy, interest, quantity, or substance (blood deficiency, resulting in a lack of vitality) 2. Artery: a communication or transportation channel, especially a major one (vessels that carry blood from the heart throughout the body) 3. Articulation: the action, manner, or state of being joined, or expressing or uttering sounds or words; also, an obstruction (a joint or juncture in an animal) 4. Cataracts: waterfalls or steep rapids, or torrents (a clouding of the eye that obstructs light) this word, from the Latin term for a portcullis, a gate that is lowered from above, likely acquired the medical connotation later, from the resemblance of the clouding to a sheet of water 5. Diagnosis: an analysis or investigation, or its conclusion (using signs and symptoms to identify a disease, or the identification itself) 6. Dyspeptic: disgruntled (suffering from indigestion) 7. Hallucination: delusion (false perception caused by drugs or a nervous system disorder, or the object so perceived) 8. Hemorrhage: a significant loss or release (a heavy flow of blood) 9. Morbid: melancholy or gruesome, or related to death (pertaining to or affected by or causing disease) 10. Nasal: a vocal quality suggestion obstruction in the nose (pertaining to the nose) 11. Nerve: boldness, strength, or a sensitive issue (tissue that connects components of an organism’s nervous system, or sinews or tendons) 12. Oral: spoken (pertaining to the mouth, or to personality traits or a stage of psychological development) 13. Paralysis: incapacity or powerlessness (loss of ability to sense and move part or all of the body) 14. Plethora: abundance, excess (an excess of blood) 15. Postmortem: an analysis or discussion of an event after it has occurred (an autopsy) 16. Prognosis: forecast (chances for recovery from disease) 17. Sanguine: bloodthirsty, or optimistic (pertaining to blood, or having a ruddy complexion) 18. Schizophrenia: antagonistic or contrary attitudes or qualities (a psychiatric disorder marked by delusion of perception and thought) 19. Surgical: marked by precision (pertaining to medical operations) 20. Umbilical: used in references to excessive emotional attachment (pertaining to the navel or the center of the abdomen) Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Wether, Weather, WhetherThe Possessive ApostropheMankind vs. Humankind

Psychological experience of leisure (in first person) Essay

Psychological experience of leisure (in first person) - Essay Example However, leisure and the role of leisure in our day lives in terms of the psychological motivations and the elements which combine together to create a sense of leisure are only a recent development in the fields of psychology and sociology. There are instances where one person may find extreme relaxation while another may suffer extreme anxiety, for example, the idea of going to a classical music recital may appeal to some but may be considered torture by others (Caldwell, 1992). The definition of leisure is a complex one since there are a numbers of ways which accurately define what leisure is. In its broadest definition, it can be understood as time left after work is done as it is explained in contemporary terms by Roberts (1999). This does not include an application of this idea to those who are retired or those who have no employment to take up the majority of their time. Additionally, there can be situations where work itself becomes so absorbing and entertaining that it falls under the heading of Leisure (Haworth & Lewis, 2005). Therefore a personal definition of leisure is important and it can be said that a person intrinsically knows when they have experienced leisure as opposed to work that is mentally or physically draining. Additionally, a leisure activity may be influenced by guilt associated with indulgence and avoidance of work which might alter the nature of the experience as well as the quality (Bà ©rubà ©, 2005). In fact, Haworth and Lewis (2005) make the point that research on leisure should be conducted on an experiential basis focusing on the positive dimensions of the leisure experience by including aspects of motivation, autonomy and personal enjoyment. Such an experience of leisure would also cover serious leisure as discussed by Stebbins (2004), who differentiates between the forces of work, leisure and

Assignment 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 12

Assignment 2 - Essay Example Yet, the actual experience of smelling a rose cannot merely be contained and explained through this comprehensive body of information. This in essence is the Qualia problem. Jackson illustrates the inadequacy of physicalism through couple of examples. He uses the ‘knowledge argument’ in describing the case of the exceptionally sighted Fred. Fred actually sees two colors within the conventional red spectrum. In other words, just as a normal human eye can distinguish between yellow and blue clearly and consistently, Fred is able to identify two colors within red – red1 and red2. The nomenclature contains ‘red’ as a common term, but it does not mean Fred sees two shades of red. To him the two are as distinct as yellow and blue are for a normal human being. This much is a brief account of the physical facts of the phenomenon. But crucially, it is a poor substitute for what it is to experience those two different colors. Even the analogy of yellow and blue give a conceptual understanding but no clue as to what the two reds might look like. This is the major shortcoming of physicalism and hence the introduction of qualia into the discussion. I totally agree with Jackson’s emphasis on qualia and its centrality to discussing sensory experience. Physicalism, though, has its utility, in that, it helps document and describe sensory phenomena for scholarly analysis. But it is ultimately limited in capturing the real experience as and when it occurs to a human subject. In my view modern psychology could benefit by incorporating qualia into its therapeutic models. It is widely understood that psychological states like depression and anxiety have their origins in perception. Two different people perceive the same sort of event in two different ways. Their reaction to these events is in turn dictated by their perception. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is aimed toward rectifying the patient’s distorted perceptions of self, others, circumstances and the

Occupational Safety & Liability Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Occupational Safety & Liability - Case Study Example   As such, one is convinced that the comprehensive definition of a safe workplace should extend beyond focusing on it being injury free – which is only one facet in adhereing to the standards of safety as prescribed by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).Concurrently, it has been revealed that employers were required by OSHA for the provision of a safe workplace that conforms to the following description: â€Å"one that is free of dangers that could physically harm those who work there†¦ requiring employers to inform employees about potential hazards, to train them in how to deal with hazards, and to keep records of workplace injuries†.Overall, other facets of safety and conformity to health standards must be adhered; not only focusing on an injury free definition. Actually, it was emphasized that a safe workplace should consider communicating explicitly to all personnel sources of potential risks and hazards, identifying machinery that could endanger the employees’ lives, preventing illnesses, making sure that lighting, ventilation, emergency exits and fire protective strategies are in place, providing vaccination as deemed necessary, and â€Å"even tracking the effects of workplace conditions on employees’ health through periodic medical examinations†. Thus, the information confirms that workplace safety does not merely mean being injury-free. All aspects of hazards and risks in the work place must be properly addressed.

Presocratic Philosophy Essay Example for Free

Presocratic Philosophy Essay Although Aristotle’s statement is too slight to serve as a sure foundation for judgment, it seems more likely that Thales was arguing for the broader presence of life forces in the world than most people imagined, rather than that the real in its totality is alive. Anaximander Thales’ younger contemporary from Miletus, Anaximander, born toward the end of the seventh century B. C. E. , found the explanatory principle of things in what he called ‘‘the apeiron,’’ a word that might be translated as ‘‘the indefinite,’’ ‘‘the boundless,’’ or both. This opens up the possibility that the apeiron is both immeasurably large in its temporal and physical extent and also qualitatively indefinite in that it is without measurable inner boundaries. The apeiron is further described, according to Aristotle, as being ‘‘without beginning,’’ ‘‘surrounding all things,’’ ‘‘steering all things,’’ ‘‘divine,’’ ‘‘immortal,’’ and ‘‘indestructible. ’’ Some have inferred that Anaximander’s barely concealed purpose was Western philosophy’s first attempt at demythologization. Equally striking is Anaximander’s description of the universe as a closed, concentric system, the outer spheres of which, by their everlasting motion, account for the stability of our earth, a drum-shaped body held everlastingly in a state of equipoise at the center. Whatever the inadequacy in certain details (the stars are placed nearer to the earth than the moon), with Anaximander the science of cosmological speculation took a giant step forward. As far as life on earth is concerned, Anaximander offered another striking hypothesis. The first living things, according to him, were ‘‘born in moisture, enclosed in thorny barks’’ (like sea urchins), and ‘‘as their age increased, they came forth onto the drier part’’ (as phrased by Aetius [first to second century C. E. ]). Pythagoras Although we know that Pythagoras was a historical figure, it is difficult to determine exactly what Pythagoras himself taught. He wrote nothing, and the ideas of other members of the community were attributed to him as a sign of respect and as a way of lending weight to the ideas. Plato and Aristotle rarely assign ideas to Pythagoras himself, although Pythagorean ideas seem to have influenced Plato’s philosophy. Pythagoreans asserted that number is the first principle of all things. They were the first systematic developers of mathematics in the West and discovered that natural events could be described in mathematical terms, especially as ratios. To the Pythagoreans, the â€Å"principle of number† accounted for everything. Number was a real thing. Somehow, numbers existed in space, not just as mental constructs. According to Pythagorean doctrine, the entire universe is an ordered whole consisting of harmonies of contrasting elements. The Greek for â€Å"ordered whole† is cosmos. The Pythagoreans were the first philosophers to use the term cosmos to refer to the universe in this way. The â€Å"celestial music of the spheres† is the hauntingly beautiful phrase the Pythagoreans coined to describe the sound of the heavens as they rotate according to cosmic number and harmony. Xenophanes A fourth Ionian philosopher, Xenophanes of Colophon, born around 580 B. C. E. , s the first we know of to overtly attack the anthropomorphism of popular religious belief, in a series of brilliant reductio ad absurdum arguments. His own view has been understood, ever since Aristotle, as pantheistic. Xenophanes was also the first philosopher we know of to ask what degree of knowledge is attainable. In B34 we read: ‘‘the clear and certain truth no man has seen, nor will there be anyone who knows about the gods and what I say about all things. ’’ Several ancient critics took this to be an indication of Xenophanes’ total scepticism. On this basis of moderate empiricism and scepticism, Xenophanes offered a number of opinions of varying plausibility about the natural world, one of which—a strong, evolutionary interpretation of the discovery on various islands of fossils of marine animals—is enough to constitute a major claim to fame in natural philosophy and ranks with his other significant steps in epistemology (the theory of knowledge dealing with what we know, how we know it, and how reliable our knowledge is), logic (the study of rational inquiry and argumentation), and natural theology (the attempt to understand God from natural knowledge). Heraclitus One of the most important and enigmatic of the Presocratics, Heraclitus (fl . 500 b. c. e. , d. 510–480 b. c. e. ), said that ignorance is bound to result when we try to understand the cosmos when we do not even comprehend the basic structure of the human psyche (soul) and its relationship to the Logos. The complex Greek word logos is intriguing. It could and at times did mean all of the following: â€Å"intelligence,† â€Å"speech,† â€Å"discourse,† â€Å"thought,† â€Å"reason,† â€Å"word,† â€Å"meaning,† â€Å"study of,† â€Å"the record of,† â€Å"the science of,† â€Å"the fundamental principles of,† â€Å"the basic principles and procedures of a particular discipline,† â€Å"those features of a thing that make it intelligible to us,† and â€Å"the rationale for a thing. † The Heraclitean capital L Logos is like God, only without the anthropomorphizing (humanizing) of the earlier philosophers and poets who attributed human qualities to the gods. According to Heraclitus’s impersonal view of God, the Logos is a process, not an entity. As such, the Logos is unconcerned with individuals and human affairs, in much the same way that gravity affects us but is unconcerned with us. More radically yet, Heraclitus asserted that even though things appear to remain the same, â€Å"Change alone is unchanging. † Traditionally, it has been held that Heraclitus went so far as to claim that everything is always changing all the time. But whether he really meant that everything is always changing, or that individual things are held together by energy (change), remains unclear. Anaximenes Anaximander’s younger contemporary, Anaximenes, who lived during the sixth century B. C. E. appears to revert to a prior and less sophisticated vision in claiming that the earth, far from being a drum-shaped body held in equipoise at the center, is flat and ‘‘rides on,’’ supported by air. The same might be said of his contention that the basic, ‘‘divine’’ principle of things was not some indefinite entity but something very much part of our experience; namely, air. Anaximenes’ view would also no doubt have seemed to be corroborated by the fact that the universe, commonly understood as a living thing and hence needing a soul to vivify it, possessed in air that very ‘‘breath’’ that for most Greeks constituted the essence of such a soul. Parmenides Parmenides of Elea (fift h century b. c. e. ) radically transformed the early philosophers’ interest in cosmology, the study of the universe as a rationally ordered system (cosmos), into ontology, the study of being. By common agreement he was the giant among the pre-Socratics. According to Parmenides, none of his predecessors adequately accounted for the process by which the one basic stuff of the cosmos changes into the many individual things we experience every day. In his search for a solution to the problem of â€Å"the one and the many,† Parmenides turned to a reasoned analysis of the process of change itself. According to Parmenides, all sensations occur in the realm of appearance. This means that reality cannot be apprehended by the senses. Change and variety (the many) are only appearances; they are not real. If this is true, then our most commonly held beliefs about reality are mere opinions. The senses cannot recognize â€Å"what is,† much less can they discover—observe—it, ever. In other words, whatever we see, touch, taste, hear, or smell is not real, does not exist. Perhaps most unsettling of all, Parmenides â€Å"solved† the problem of the appearance of change by concluding—in direct opposition to Heraclitus’s insistence that everything is always changing—that the very concept of change is self-contradictory. What we think of as change is merely an illusion. The logic runs as follows: â€Å"Change† equals transformation into something else. When a thing becomes â€Å"something else,† it becomes what it is not. But since it is impossible for â€Å"nothing† (what is not) to exist, there is no â€Å"nothing† into which the old thing can disappear. (There is no â€Å"no place† for the thing to go into. ) Therefore, change cannot occur. Empedocles posited, against Parmenides, change and plurality as features of reality, but affirmed the eternality of anything that is real; the sphere-like nature of the real when looked at as a totality and the fact that the real is a plenum, containing no ‘‘nothingness’’ or ‘‘emptiness’’. Anaxagoras likewise posited change, plurality, and divisibility as features of reality, yet also affirmed the eternality of the real (understood by him as an eternally existent ‘‘mixture’’ of the ‘‘seeds’’ of the things currently constituting the world, rather than the eternal combinings and recombinings, according to certain ratios of admixture, of four eternally existent ‘‘roots’’ or elemental masses). Leucippus Leucippus of Miletus (c. fi ft h century b. c. e. ) and Democritus of Abdera (c. 460–370 b. . e. ) argued that reality consists entirely of empty space and ultimately simple entities that combine to form objects. T is materialistic view is known as atomism. Leucippus is credited with being the originator of atomism and Democritus with developing it. Rather than reject Parmenides’ assertion that change is an illusion, Leucippus argued that reality consists of many discrete â€Å"ones ,† or beings. Zeno Zeno, who was born early in the fifth century B. C. E. , was a friend and pupil of Parmenides. In his famous paradoxes he attempted to show by a series of reductio ad absurdum arguments, of which the best known is perhaps that of Achilles and the tortoise, the self-contradictory consequences of maintaining that there is a real plurality of things or that motion or place are real. The prima facie brilliance of many of the arguments continues to impress people, though it soon becomes clear that the paradoxes turn largely on the failure or unwillingness of Zeno, like so many Pythagoreans of the day, to distinguish between the concepts of physical and geometrical space. Zeno’s way of constructing the problem makes it seem that his primary object is to defame pluralists by attacking the logical possibility of explaining how there can be motion in the world. Gorgias Gorgias has achieved fame for the stress he laid upon the art of persuasion (‘‘rhetoric’’), although whether he wrote the baffling On What Is Not as a serious piece of persuasive reasoning or as some sort of spoof of the Eleatic philosophy of Parmenides and others remains disputed. Its basic, and remarkable, claim is prima facie, that nothing in fact is (exists /is the case [esti] or is knowable or conceivable. Any exiguous plausibility that the arguments supporting this claim possess turns on our overlooking Gorgias’s failure, witting or unwitting, to distinguish carefully between knowing and thinking, along with his various uses of the verb ‘‘to be. ’’ If the failure was witting, the document can be seen as a skillful device for the spotting of fallacies as part of training in rhetoric and basic reasoning. If it was unwitting, Gorgias still emerges as what he was claimed to be—a deft rhetorical wordsmith on any topic proposed to him. Protagoras Perhaps the greatest of the Sophists was Protagoras of Abdera (481– 411 b. c. e. ). Protagoras was an archetypal Sophist: an active traveler and first-rate observer of other cultures who noted that although there are a variety of customs and beliefs, each culture believes unquestioningly that its own ways are right—and roundly condemns (or at least criticizes) views that differ from its own. Based on his observations and travels, Protagoras concluded that morals are nothing more than the social traditions, or mores, of a society or group. The details of Protagoras’s beliefs remain disputed. When he said, for example, that ‘‘anthropos [humanity] is a/the measure for all things, of things that are, that they are, and of things that are not, that they are not,’’ it is unclear whether he is talking about one person or the sum total of persons; about ‘‘a’’ measure or ‘‘the’’ measure (there is no definite article in Greek); or about existence or states of affairs or both. The Platonic reading in the Theaetetus, which takes ‘‘anthropos’’ as generic and ‘‘measure’’ as exclusive, led to the assertion that the logical consequence was total (and absurd) relativism. ______________________________ References: The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. Richard H. Popkin. Columbia University Press. 1999. Archetypes of Wisdom: An Introduction to Philosophy. 7th ed. Douglas J. Soccio. Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. 2010.